North Macedonia has a GDP of $19.1B compared to $1.04T for Poland, ranking 137/197 and 21/197 by economy size, respectively.
North Macedonia has $10B in government debt (52.5% of GDP), compared to $609B (58.8% of GDP) in Poland.
North Macedonia vs Poland GDP by year
| Year | GDP, current $ | |
|---|---|---|
North Macedonia
|
Poland
|
|
| 2025 | $19,101,199,817 | $1,035,491,784,197 |
| 2024 | $16,951,682,221 | $917,767,106,147 |
| 2023 | $15,855,131,189 | $812,451,193,396 |
| 2022 | $13,932,436,550 | $695,607,470,875 |
| 2021 | $14,000,283,827 | $689,170,230,665 |
| 2020 | $12,361,036,914 | $605,914,237,904 |
| 2019 | $12,606,338,449 | $602,683,770,145 |
| 2018 | $12,683,068,114 | $594,616,632,477 |
| 2017 | $11,307,067,070 | $528,356,723,263 |
| 2016 | $10,672,467,073 | $473,259,623,976 |
| 2015 | $10,064,519,963 | $480,054,118,583 |
| 2014 | $11,362,265,253 | $542,134,167,179 |
| 2013 | $10,817,702,346 | $518,179,836,405 |
| 2012 | $9,745,261,301 | $498,148,649,703 |
| 2011 | $10,494,626,768 | $527,848,543,023 |
| 2010 | $9,407,170,321 | $478,111,630,684 |
| 2009 | $9,401,736,825 | $440,891,472,247 |
| 2008 | $9,909,552,435 | $535,612,030,672 |
| 2007 | $8,336,474,974 | $429,715,132,138 |
| 2006 | $6,861,226,972 | $345,897,630,736 |
| 2005 | $6,258,602,873 | $306,999,913,151 |
| 2004 | $5,682,784,472 | $256,268,656,145 |
| 2003 | $4,946,296,599 | $218,561,225,998 |
| 2002 | $4,018,365,747 | $199,694,463,256 |
| 2001 | $3,709,636,031 | $191,823,200,371 |
| 2000 | $3,772,859,034 | $172,953,527,033 |
| 1999 | $3,863,619,285 | $170,704,452,715 |
| 1998 | $3,765,745,023 | $175,282,269,667 |
| 1997 | $3,912,986,091 | $159,893,964,917 |
| 1996 | $4,642,021,256 | $160,813,026,223 |
| 1995 | $4,707,041,315 | $142,838,527,115 |
| 1994 | $3,559,608,640 | $110,803,635,288 |
| 1993 | $2,682,456,897 | $96,043,157,273 |
| 1992 | $2,436,849,342 | $94,337,050,693 |
| 1991 | $4,938,775,510 | $85,500,935,935 |
| 1990 | $4,699,646,643 | $65,977,748,211 |
Data sources: World Bank | Economy & Growth (1990–2025, retrieved 2026-07-08).
GeoRank.org/economy/north-macedonia/poland | CC BY 
GDP per capita in North Macedonia vs Poland by year
| Year | Current $ | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
|
North Macedonia
|
Poland
|
|||
| GDP per capita | GDP per capita, PPP | GDP per capita | GDP per capita, PPP | |
| 2025 | $10,490 | - | $28,420 | - |
| 2024 | $9,292 | $26,995 | $25,104 | $51,263 |
| 2023 | $8,674 | $25,354 | $22,145 | $48,473 |
| 2022 | $7,606 | $24,212 | $18,891 | $46,778 |
| 2021 | $7,621 | $22,144 | $18,636 | $41,060 |
| 2020 | $6,660 | $19,962 | $16,151 | $37,089 |
| 2019 | $6,719 | $20,223 | $15,875 | $35,882 |
| 2018 | $6,714 | $18,460 | $15,658 | $32,345 |
| 2017 | $5,955 | $17,161 | $13,913 | $30,170 |
| 2016 | $5,598 | $16,458 | $12,464 | $28,360 |
| 2015 | $5,263 | $15,034 | $12,638 | $26,988 |
| 2014 | $5,925 | $14,485 | $14,262 | $25,460 |
| 2013 | $5,626 | $13,663 | $13,622 | $24,434 |
| 2012 | $5,050 | $12,726 | $13,087 | $23,728 |
| 2011 | $5,417 | $12,421 | $13,868 | $22,809 |
| 2010 | $4,833 | $11,992 | $12,568 | $20,991 |
| 2009 | $4,800 | $11,532 | $11,556 | $19,300 |
| 2008 | $5,026 | $10,924 | $14,049 | $18,372 |
| 2007 | $4,204 | $9,639 | $11,273 | $16,833 |
| 2006 | $3,440 | $8,888 | $9,069 | $15,205 |
| 2005 | $3,121 | $7,972 | $8,044 | $13,936 |
| 2004 | $2,819 | $7,229 | $6,712 | $13,413 |
| 2003 | $2,445 | $6,608 | $5,721 | $12,329 |
| 2002 | $1,989 | $6,395 | $5,223 | $11,841 |
| 2001 | $1,823 | $6,051 | $5,015 | $11,175 |
| 2000 | $1,862 | $6,154 | $4,521 | $10,721 |
| 1999 | $1,915 | $5,724 | $4,416 | $10,081 |
| 1998 | $1,876 | $5,448 | $4,534 | $9,521 |
| 1997 | $1,960 | $5,227 | $4,137 | $8,967 |
| 1996 | $2,307 | $5,026 | $4,164 | $8,310 |
| 1995 | $2,355 | $4,912 | $3,701 | $7,715 |
| 1994 | $1,786 | $4,880 | $2,875 | $7,040 |
| 1993 | $1,337 | $4,829 | $2,497 | $6,560 |
| 1992 | $1,199 | $5,033 | $2,459 | $6,193 |
| 1991 | $2,402 | $5,207 | $2,236 | $5,925 |
| 1990 | $2,277 | $5,348 | $1,731 | $6,185 |
Data sources: World Bank | Economy & Growth (1990–2025, retrieved 2026-07-08).
GeoRank.org/economy/north-macedonia/poland | CC BY
North Macedonia's GDP per capita is $10,490, ranking 86/197, compared to $28,420 in Poland, ranking 47/197. Adjusted for purchasing power (GDP per capita PPP), North Macedonia ranks 78th at $26,995, while Poland ranks 43rd at $51,263.
Economic indicators
|
North Macedonia
|
Poland
|
|
|---|---|---|
| Gross domestic product |
$19.1B
2025 |
$1.04T
2025 |
| GDP rank |
137/197
2025 |
21/197
2025 |
| GDP growth |
3.49%
2024-2025 |
3.57%
2024-2025 |
| GDP per capita |
$10,490
2025 |
$28,420
2025 |
| GDP per capita rank |
86/197
2025 |
47/197
2025 |
| GDP per capita, PPP |
$26,995
2024 |
$51,263
2024 |
| GDP per capita PPP rank |
78/197
2024 |
43/197
2024 |
| Government debt |
$10B
2025 |
$609B
2025 |
| Debt-to-GDP ratio |
52.5%
2025 |
58.8%
2025 |
| Government debt per person |
$5,510
2025 |
$16,712
2025 |
| Government debt per person rank |
78/185
2025 |
39/185
2025 |
| Average annual personal income after taxes |
$9,326
2026 |
$20,616
2026 |
| Market capitalization of domestic companies | n/a |
$316B
2025 |
| Number of millionaires | n/a |
101,000
2026 |
| Number of billionaires | n/a |
10
2026 |
| Income share by richest 10% |
22.9%
2019 |
22.9%
2023 |
| Income share by poorest 10% |
1.9%
2019 |
3.3%
2023 |
| Government expenditure, % of GDP |
36.2%
2025 |
50%
2025 |
| Consumer prices inflation |
4.1%
2024-2025 |
3.81%
2024-2025 |
| Central bank interest rate |
5.35%
2025 |
3.75%
2026 |
| Unemployment rate |
11.5%
2025 |
3.02%
2025 |
| Population |
1811466
|
36007074
|
Spending and national debt comparison by year
| Year | % of GDP | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
|
North Macedonia
|
Poland
|
|||
| Government spending | Government debt | Government spending | Government debt | |
| 2025 | 36.2% | 52.5% | 50% | 58.8% |
| 2024 | 36.1% | 52.9% | 49.4% | 55.1% |
| 2023 | 35.3% | 50.5% | 46.9% | 49.5% |
| 2022 | 35% | 50.4% | 43.2% | 48.8% |
| 2021 | 35.3% | 52.7% | 43.6% | 53% |
| 2020 | 36.4% | 50.8% | 47.7% | 56.6% |
| 2019 | 31.4% | 40.4% | 41.4% | 45.2% |
| 2018 | 30.3% | 40.4% | 41% | 48.2% |
| 2017 | 31.8% | 39.4% | 41.1% | 50.4% |
| 2016 | 31.1% | 39.7% | 41.1% | 54.1% |
| 2015 | 32.2% | 38% | 41.5% | 51.1% |
| 2014 | 31.7% | 38% | 42.7% | 51.1% |
| 2013 | 31.7% | 34% | 43.2% | 56.9% |
| 2012 | 33.3% | 33.7% | 43.2% | 54.5% |
| 2011 | 31.9% | 27.7% | 44.1% | 54.8% |
| 2010 | 32.5% | 24.3% | 46% | 53.7% |
| 2009 | 33.6% | 23.7% | 44.9% | 49.7% |
| 2008 | 33.8% | 20.6% | 44% | 46.6% |
| 2007 | 31.4% | 23.5% | 42.8% | 44.4% |
| 2006 | 31.5% | 30.6% | 44.3% | 47.1% |
| 2005 | 32.5% | 36.7% | 44.1% | 46.5% |
| 2004 | 34.1% | 34.6% | 43.4% | 45% |
| 2003 | 36% | 36.5% | 45.3% | 46.2% |
| 2002 | 38.2% | 40.5% | 44.9% | 41.4% |
| 2001 | 37.4% | 45.2% | 44.6% | 37% |
| 2000 | 32% | 45.6% | 42.9% | 36.3% |
| 1999 | 32.5% | 29.8% | 42.4% | 39.2% |
| 1998 | 32.2% | 33.1% | 43.9% | 38.6% |
| 1997 | 32.3% | 29.3% | 46% | 42.6% |
| 1996 | - | - | 50.6% | 43% |
| 1995 | - | - | 47.3% | 48.6% |
| 1994 | - | - | - | 64.3% |
| 1993 | - | - | - | 83.9% |
| 1992 | - | - | - | 81.9% |
| 1991 | - | - | - | 76.9% |
| 1990 | - | - | - | 89.7% |
| 1989 | - | - | - | - |
| 1988 | - | - | - | - |
| 1987 | - | - | - | - |
| 1986 | - | - | - | - |
| 1985 | - | - | - | - |
| 1984 | - | - | - | - |
| 1983 | - | - | - | - |
| 1982 | - | - | - | - |
| 1981 | - | - | - | - |
| 1980 | - | - | - | - |
| 1979 | - | - | 35.6% | - |
| 1978 | - | - | 35.8% | - |
| 1977 | - | - | 35.6% | - |
| 1976 | - | - | 34.8% | - |
| 1975 | - | - | 34.1% | - |
| 1974 | - | - | 28.6% | - |
| 1973 | - | - | 24.5% | - |
| 1972 | - | - | 24.1% | - |
| 1971 | - | - | 24.1% | - |
| 1970 | - | - | 25.8% | - |
| 1969 | - | - | 26.3% | - |
| 1968 | - | - | 27.3% | - |
| 1967 | - | - | 29.6% | - |
| 1966 | - | - | 31.7% | - |
| 1965 | - | - | 31.8% | - |
| 1964 | - | - | 33.5% | - |
| 1963 | - | - | 33.3% | - |
| 1962 | - | - | 43% | - |
| 1961 | - | - | 42.8% | - |
| 1960 | - | - | 39.2% | - |
Data sources: International Monetary Fund (IMF) | Fiscal Monitor (1995–2025, retrieved 2026-07-08); International Monetary Fund (IMF) | Public Finances in Modern History (1960–1998, retrieved 2026-07-08).
GeoRank.org/economy/north-macedonia/poland | CC BY
In 2025, North Macedonia's government spending was $6.91B, accounting for 36.2% of its GDP, while Poland spent $517B, or 50% of GDP.
Debt-to-GDP ratio is 52.5% in North Macedonia and 58.8% in Poland, ranking 97/185 and 81/185, respectively.
Government deficit by year
| Year | Deficit/surplus, % of GDP | |
|---|---|---|
|
North Macedonia
|
Poland
|
|
| 2025 | -4.01% | -7.01% |
| 2024 | -4.38% | -6.48% |
| 2023 | -4.59% | -5.2% |
| 2022 | -5.23% | -3.37% |
| 2021 | -5.32% | -1.68% |
| 2020 | -8.05% | -6.85% |
| 2019 | -1.97% | -0.73% |
| 2018 | -1.76% | -0.24% |
| 2017 | -2.73% | -1.49% |
| 2016 | -2.7% | -2.38% |
| 2015 | -3.48% | -2.59% |
| 2014 | -4.19% | -3.66% |
| 2013 | -3.84% | -4.25% |
| 2012 | -3.81% | -3.8% |
| 2011 | -2.47% | -4.97% |
| 2010 | -2.41% | -7.43% |
| 2009 | -2.63% | -7.24% |
| 2008 | -0.93% | -3.6% |
| 2007 | 0.58% | -1.88% |
| 2006 | -0.51% | -3.53% |
| 2005 | 0.21% | -3.93% |
| 2004 | 0.37% | -5% |
| 2003 | -0.07% | -6% |
| 2002 | -5.24% | -4.79% |
| 2001 | -5.88% | -4.71% |
| 2000 | 2.37% | -3.98% |
| 1999 | 0.03% | -2.29% |
| 1998 | -1.59% | -4.24% |
| 1997 | -0.35% | -4.59% |
| 1996 | - | -4.82% |
| 1995 | - | -4.38% |
Data sources: International Monetary Fund (IMF) | Fiscal Monitor (1995–2025, retrieved 2026-07-08).
GeoRank.org/economy/north-macedonia/poland | CC BY
In 2025, North Macedonia's government deficit, the difference between spending and revenue, was $766M, equivalent to 4.01% of GDP. This compares to Poland's deficit of $72.6B, or 7.01% of GDP.
Over the past 29 years, North Macedonia recorded a fiscal deficit in 24 of those years, while Poland ran a deficit in 29 years. On average, North Macedonia posted an annual deficit equal to 2.57% of GDP, compared to deficit of 4.07% of GDP for Poland.
Inflation comparison by year
| Year | Consumer prices inflation | |
|---|---|---|
|
North Macedonia
|
Poland
|
|
| 2025 | 4.1% | 3.81% |
| 2024 | 3.5% | 3.79% |
| 2023 | 9.4% | 11.5% |
| 2022 | 14.2% | 14.4% |
| 2021 | 3.2% | 5.06% |
| 2020 | 1.2% | 3.37% |
| 2019 | 0.8% | 2.23% |
| 2018 | 1.5% | 1.81% |
| 2017 | 1.4% | 2.08% |
| 2016 | -0.2% | -0.66% |
| 2015 | -0.2% | -0.87% |
| 2014 | -0.3% | 0.05% |
| 2013 | 2.8% | 0.99% |
| 2012 | 3.3% | 3.56% |
| 2011 | 3.9% | 4.24% |
| 2010 | 1.5% | 2.58% |
| 2009 | -0.8% | 3.8% |
| 2008 | 7.2% | 4.16% |
| 2007 | 2.8% | 2.46% |
| 2006 | 3.3% | 1.28% |
| 2005 | 0% | 2.18% |
| 2004 | -0.4% | 3.38% |
| 2003 | 1.1% | 0.68% |
| 2002 | 1.7% | 1.91% |
| 2001 | 5.1% | 5.41% |
| 2000 | 6.6% | 9.9% |
| 1999 | -1.3% | 7.15% |
| 1998 | 0.5% | 11.6% |
| 1997 | 1.3% | 14.9% |
Data sources: International Monetary Fund (IMF) | World Economic Outlook (1997–2025, retrieved 2026-07-08); World Bank | Economy & Growth (1997–2025, retrieved 2026-07-08).
GeoRank.org/economy/north-macedonia/poland | CC BY
Over the past 29 years, North Macedonia has recorded an average annual inflation rate of 2.66%, compared with 4.37% in Poland. In 2025, inflation was 4.1% in North Macedonia and 3.81% in Poland.
Top exports between countries
|
North Macedonia
|
|
|---|---|
| Export category | Export value |
| Machinery & equipment | $34.6M |
| Textiles & consumer goods | $20.3M |
| Metals | $16.2M |
| Raw agricultural goods | $14.7M |
| Raw materials & minerals | $11.3M |
| Chemicals & pharma | $8.3M |
| Processed food, beverages & tobacco | $4.42M |
| Wood & paper products | $251K |
| Animal & marine products | $29K |
| Precious metals & jewellery | $7K |
|
Poland
|
|
|---|---|
| Export category | Export value |
| Machinery & equipment | $89.5M |
| Textiles & consumer goods | $70.1M |
| Processed food, beverages & tobacco | $40.3M |
| Chemicals & pharma | $27M |
| Animal & marine products | $25.4M |
| Metals | $17.8M |
| Raw materials & minerals | $8.89M |
| Miscellaneous | $5.38M |
| Wood & paper products | $4.93M |
| Raw agricultural goods | $1.88M |
Balance of trade
|
North Macedonia
|
Poland
|
|
|---|---|---|
|
Current account balance
|
-$815M
2025 |
-$9.05B
2025 |
| Current account balance ranking |
112/190
2025 |
172/190
2025 |
| Current account balance, % of GDP |
-4.27%
2025 |
-0.87%
2025 |
| Goods imports |
$11.7B
2025 |
$406B
2025 |
| Goods exports |
$7.87B
2025 |
$390B
2025 |
| Service imports |
$2.4B
2025 |
$86.5B
2025 |
| Service exports |
$3.55B
2025 |
$131B
2025 |
| Imports of goods and services, % of GDP |
73.4%
2025 |
47.1%
2025 |
| Exports of goods and services, % of GDP |
59.6%
2025 |
50%
2025 |
Economic freedom indices
The indices of economic freedom below are issued by the Heritage Foundation. Higher scores indicate stronger economic health.
|
North Macedonia
|
Poland
|
|
|---|---|---|
| Economic freedom | 63.3 | 68.5 |
| Economic freedom ranking | 81/197 | 46/197 |
| Property rights | 56.2 | 71.8 |
| Government integrity | 43.2 | 60.7 |
| Judicial effectiveness | 49.5 | 62.5 |
| Tax burden | 94.9 | 72.7 |
| Government spending | 61.7 | 35.1 |
| Fiscal health | 57.7 | 74.8 |
| Business freedom | 72.2 | 77.5 |
| Labor freedom | 51.4 | 53.7 |
| Monetary freedom | 69.6 | 73.8 |
| Trade freedom | 77.8 | 79.4 |
| Investment freedom | 65 | 80 |
| Financial freedom | 60 | 80 |
Economic freedom comparison by year
| Year | Economic freedom index | |
|---|---|---|
|
North Macedonia
|
Poland
|
|
| 2026 | 63.3 | 68.5 |
| 2025 | 63.2 | 67.1 |
| 2024 | 61.4 | 66 |
| 2023 | 63.7 | 67.7 |
| 2022 | 65.7 | 68.7 |
| 2021 | 68.6 | 69.7 |
| 2020 | 69.5 | 69.1 |
| 2019 | 71.1 | 67.8 |
| 2018 | 71.3 | 68.5 |
| 2017 | 70.7 | 68.3 |
| 2016 | 67.5 | 69.3 |
| 2015 | 67.1 | 68.6 |
| 2014 | 68.6 | 67 |
| 2013 | 68.2 | 66 |
| 2012 | 68.5 | 64.2 |
| 2011 | 66 | 64.1 |
| 2010 | 65.7 | 63.2 |
| 2009 | 61.2 | 60.3 |
| 2008 | 61.1 | 60.3 |
| 2007 | 60.6 | 58.1 |
| 2006 | 59.2 | 59.3 |
| 2005 | 56.1 | 59.6 |
| 2004 | 56.8 | 58.7 |
| 2003 | 60.1 | 61.8 |
| 2002 | 58 | 65 |
| 2001 | - | 61.8 |
| 2000 | - | 60 |
| 1999 | - | 59.6 |
| 1998 | - | 59.2 |
| 1997 | - | 56.8 |
| 1996 | - | 57.8 |
| 1995 | - | 50.7 |
Data sources: The Heritage Foundation | Economic Freedom Index (1995–2026, retrieved 2026-07-08).
GeoRank.org/economy/north-macedonia/poland | CC BY
The Economic Freedom Index for North Macedonia is 63.3, ranking 81/197, compared to 68.5 for Poland, ranking 46/197. The chart above displays a comparison of annual changes in economic freedom indexes.
Other economic metrics
|
North Macedonia
|
Poland
|
|
|---|---|---|
| Services, % of GDP |
57%
2025 |
59.7%
2025 |
| Industry, % of GDP |
24.1%
2025 |
25.8%
2025 |
| Agriculture, forestry, and fishing, % of GDP |
5.98%
2025 |
2.45%
2025 |
|
GNI, Atlas method
|
$17.3B
2025 |
$930B
2025 |
| GNI per capita, PPP |
$26,680
2025 |
$52,290
2025 |
| Total reserves including gold |
$5.8B
2025 |
$272B
2025 |
| Total reserves ranking |
98/177
2025 |
16/177
2025 |
|
Net foreign direct investment
|
-$276M
2025 |
-$11.7B
2025 |
|
Net inflows of foreign direct investment
|
$1.06B
2024 |
$20.6B
2024 |
|
Net outflows of foreign direct investment
|
-$64.9M
2024 |
$10B
2024 |
|
Servicing debt to the IMF, % of GNI
|
9.59%
2024 |
n/a |
| Poverty at national poverty lines |
21.9%
2023 |
13.3%
2024 |
|
Gross capital formation, % of GDP
|
31.7%
2025 |
17.9%
2025 |
GDP per capita map
Data sources: World Bank | Economy & Growth (1985–2025, retrieved 2026-07-08); U.S. Census Bureau (1985–2025, retrieved 2026-07-08).
GeoRank.org/economy/north-macedonia/poland | CC BY
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Data sources:
- World Bank | Economy & Growth (1985–2025, retrieved 2026-07-08)
- International Monetary Fund (IMF) | Fiscal Monitor (1995–2025, retrieved 2026-07-08)
- The Heritage Foundation | Economic Freedom Index (1995–2026, retrieved 2026-07-08)
- U.S. Census Bureau (1985–2025, retrieved 2026-07-08)
- International Monetary Fund (IMF) | Public Finances in Modern History (1960–1998, retrieved 2026-07-08)
- TradeMap (2022–2025, retrieved 2026-07-08)
- United Nations | World Population Prospects (2026, retrieved 2026-07-08)
- LivingCost (2026, retrieved 2026-07-08)
Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) — you’re free to copy, share, remix, adapt, and use even commercially as long as you give appropriate credit and clearly indicate if you made changes. Other sources may be subject to different license terms.
The current account balance is the sum of net trade in goods and services, net earnings from cross-border investments, and net transfer payments. It reflects a country's economic transactions with the rest of the world and is a fundamental component of the balance of payments. A surplus indicates that a country exports more than it imports, while a deficit shows the opposite.
Gross National Income (GNI) measures a country's total income. It encompasses income earned by residents, businesses, and foreign sources, defined as employee compensation and investment profits. GNI adds product taxes not included elsewhere and subtracts subsidies. It accounts for income from residents working abroad but excludes earnings from foreigners within the country.
A negative value for Net Foreign Direct Investment indicates a country is a net receiver of investments, as foreign inflows exceed outflows after Balance of Payments adjustments. A positive value indicates a net provider, with outflows exceeding inflows. Inflows are credits (increasing foreign claims on domestic assets), while outflows are debits (increasing domestic assets abroad).
Foreign direct investment (FDI, net inflows) shows how much capital foreign investors bring into a country after accounting for any funds that flow back in the opposite direction. It represents the net value of overseas companies establishing, expanding, or financing businesses in the reporting country. A positive number means more capital entered the country than was withdrawn, while a negative number means foreign investors pulled out more than they invested.
Foreign direct investment (FDI, net outflows) shows how much capital residents of a country invest abroad after accounting for any funds that flow back in the opposite direction. It represents the net value of domestic companies establishing, expanding, or financing businesses in other countries. A positive number means more capital was invested abroad than withdrawn, while a negative number means residents pulled back more than they invested.
Principal and interest payments to the IMF in currency, goods, or services on long-term debt expressed as a share of GNI.
Formerly gross domestic investment, gross capital formation measures the share of a country’s economic output invested in fixed assets, including buildings, machinery, and infrastructure. It indicates how much of the economy is devoted to building productive capacity.